有關亞特蘭提斯(大西洲)的傳說,始於古希臘的哲學之祖 — — 柏拉圖。在柏拉圖最晚年的著作《克里提亞篇》(Critias)和《提馬友篇》(Timaeus)兩本對話錄中都有提及。
在柏拉圖的提示中,有這樣的話:「在梭倫九千年前左右,海格力斯之柱(直布羅陀海峽Gibraltar)對面,有一個很大的島,從那裡你們可以去其它的島嶼,那些島嶼的對面,就是海洋包圍著的一整塊陸地,這就是『亞特蘭提斯』王國」。當時亞特蘭提斯正要與雅典展開一場大戰,沒想到亞特蘭提斯卻突然遭遇到地震和水災,不到一天一夜就完全沒入海底,成為希臘人海路遠行的阻礙。 — — 維基百科:亞特蘭提斯 ,略有修改
Essentially the story is about a good city and a city gone bad and the divinely arranged, therapeutic punishment of the bad city by its defeat at the hands of the good. — Warman Welliver — — 維基百科:Critias
除了大西洲外,有學者認為地球上還曾經存在著兩個已消失的大陸,亦即太平洋上的姆大陸(μ continent)和印度洋上的雷姆利亞大陸(Lemuria Continent),據說姆大陸也產生過高度文明,但同樣遇到陸沉的命運。 — — 《從荷馬到但丁》 陳煒舜
至於人類所知的高級文明,德國學者施本格勒(Osward Spengler)在其巨著《西方的沒落》(The Decline of the West) 中歸納為八個,亦即古埃及、古印度、巴比倫、中國、古希臘 — 羅馬、伊斯蘭、祆教及墨西哥。 — — 《從荷馬到但丁》 陳煒舜
陳煒舜教授現為臺灣佛光大學文學系的副教授,而上述中的姆大陸原來和台灣亦有極大關系,有關古大陸的題材,可看這篇文章:《台灣的上古文明與已沈沒的姆大陸》。在八大古文明當中,陳教授選取了巴比倫的《吉爾迦美什》、古埃及的《辛勞赫記》及古印度的《羅摩傳》,而這一篇將會談及《吉爾迦美什》。
(原圖出處:http://bokelskere.no/bok/the-epic-of-gilgamesh-penguin-classics/206347/)
巴比倫,位於亞洲西部的美索不達米亞,今天的伊拉克,伊朗,敘利亞一帶,(底格里斯河(Tigris)和幼發拉底河(Euphrates)之間的土地)是世界上最早的文明發源地之一。公元前3500年後,蘇美爾人(Sumerians)先後在這裡建立了很多奴隸制城邦,其間不斷地出現政權更迭,使國家一直處於無序狀態,最後蘇美爾很快地衰落。公元前18世紀,漢摩拉比(Hammurabi)繼承了巴比倫城邦的王位,他自稱是「月神的後裔」,並發動了大規模的戰爭,征服南端的蘇美爾人和北部的阿卡德人(Akkadians),統一了美索不達米亞,並頒布了《漢摩拉比法典》(Hammurabi’s code of Laws),為世上第一部較為完備的成文法典。 — — 百度百科:古巴比倫,略有修改
西元前689年,古巴比倫王成被阿述(Assyrians)所滅。前605年,新巴比倫王國又滅掉了亞述。前538年,新巴比倫被波斯(Persia)所滅,做為一個獨立整體的美索不達米亞的文明宣告結束。 — — 《從荷馬到但丁》 陳煒舜
西元前十九世紀至西元前十六世紀之間是巴比倫文學的繁盛期,對西亞不少民族的神話傳說以及猶太 — 基督教的《聖經》文學產生了重要影響。此時的文學作品以史詩和敘事詩為主,如創世神話《埃努瑪‧埃立什》(Enuma Elish)、神歌《伊詩妲爾下冥府》 (Ishtar Descending to the Underworld)以及《詠正直受難者的詩》、《主人和奴隸的對話》等。其中最傑出的著作為史詩《吉爾迦美什》(Gilgamesh)。 — — 《從荷馬到但丁》 陳煒舜
(原圖出處:http://www.zwbk.org/zh-tw/Lemma_Show/93260.aspx)
The Epic of Gilgamesh is best known from a version called ‘He who saw the Deep’ {PS:”He who Saw the Deep”, in modern terms: ‘He who Sees the Unknown}, which circulated in Babylonia and Assyria in the first millennium BC. The Babylonians believed this poem to have been the responsibility of a man called Sîn-liqe-unninni, a learned scholar of Uruk whom modern scholars consider to have lived some time between 1300–1000 BC …… The Babylonian epic was composed in Akkadian, but its literary origins lie in five Sumerian poems of even greater antiquity. The Sumerian texts gained their final form probably as court entertainments sung for King Shulgi of Ur of the Chaldees, who reigned in the 21st century BC. — — 《The Epic of Gilgamesh (Penguin Classics)》
When the gods created Gilgamesh they gave him a perfect body. Shamash the glorious sun endowed him with beauty, Adad the god of the storm endowed him with courage, the great gods made his beauty perfect, surpassing all others, terrifying like a great wild bull. Two thirds they made him god and one third man. — — 《The Epic of Gilgamesh (Assyrian International News Agency)》
烏魯克國王吉爾迦美什天賦異稟,卻暴虐無道。他強迫民眾修築城牆,還隨意凌辱婦女。被壓迫的居民們向天神申訴,於是天神就派下女神阿魯魯(Aruru)所創造的人頭獸身、頭有兩角的神人恩啟都(Enkidu)來威脅吉爾迦美什。恩啟都在神妓的引誘下來到烏魯克,得到烏魯克居民如國王一樣的崇敬,使吉爾迦美什嫉妒不已。吉爾迦美什先和恩啟都大打出手,後來兩人卻成為朋友,共享王位。 — — 《從荷馬到但丁》 陳煒舜
恩啟都作為被創造的神人,神妓究竟是如何使其帶至烏魯克?
Enkidu …… had joy of the water with the herds of wild game. But there was a trapper who met him one day face to face at the drinking-hole, for the wild game had entered his territory. On three days he met him face to face, and the trapper was frozen with fear…… With awe in his heart he spoke to his father: ‘Father, there is a man, unlike any other, who comes down from the hills. He is the strongest in the world, he is like an immortal from heaven……’ His father opened his mouth and said to the trapper , ‘My son, in Uruk lives Gilgamesh; no one has ever pre — vailed against him, he is strong as a star from heaven. Go to Uruk, find Gilgamesh, extol the strength of this wild man. Ask him to give you a harlot, a wanton from the temple of love; return with her, and let her woman’s power overpower this man. When next he comes down to drink at the wells she will be there, stripped naked; and when he sees her beckoning he will embrace her, and then the wild beasts will reject him.’ — — 《The Epic of Gilgamesh (Assyrian International News Agency)》
She (指的是神妓,harlot) was not ashamed to take him, she made herself naked and welcomed his eagerness; as he lay on her murmuring love, she taught him the woman’s art. For six days and seven nights they lay together, for Enkidu had forgotten his home in the hills; but when he was satisfied he went back to the wild beasts. Then, when the gazelle saw him, they bolted away; when the wild creatures saw him they fled. Enkidu would have followed, but his body was bound as though with a cord, his knees gave way when he started to run, his swiftness was gone. And now the wild creatures had all fled away; Enkidu was grown weak , for wisdom was in him, and the thoughts of a man were in his heart. So he returned and sat down at the woman’s feet, and listened intently to what she said. ‘You are wise, Enkidu, and now you have become like a god. Why do you want to run wild with the beasts in the hills? Come with me. I will take you to strong-walled Uruk, to the blessed temple of Ishtar and of Anu, of love and of heaven there Gilgamesh lives, who is very strong, and like a wild bull he lords it over men.’ — — 《The Epic of Gilgamesh (Assyrian International News Agency)》
恩啟都歸化於城市,背後代表著甚麼?陳教授在《從荷馬到但丁》提到:
恩啟都有著半人半獸的外型,同時卻又與吉爾迦美什面貌相似,其實是吉爾迦美什的異體。他驍勇的氣慨、野獸般的外表喻示著喻示著人類蠻荒的往昔。這個野人原本與鳥獸共處,後來受到吉爾迦美什所差遣的神妓引誘而被弄得軟弱無力,遭到野獸的遺棄。恩啟都從野蠻到文明的轉化,是一個痛苦而矛盾的過程,因為歸順文明就要付出失去質樸的代價,就要告別天然的悠閑生活。
而葉舒憲提出,一位城邦的英雄,一位牧野的英雄,他們的決鬥與和解正是蘇美人的城市文化和阿卡德(巴比倫)的遊牧文化之間衝突與融合的奇妙縮影蘇美人是地理的征服者,文化上的被征服者,阿卡德人(巴比倫)剛好相反。吉爾迦美什派神妓把開化和文明帶給了半野人恩啟都,使他奇蹟般地完成進化中的超升;而恩啟都則將山野之中古樸善良的原始美德帶給了城邦奴隸主領袖吉爾迦美什,使他從一個被民眾厭棄的暴君轉變成建功立業的英雄 — — 《從荷馬到但丁》 陳煒舜
Gigamesh mourns Enkidu (原圖來源:http://goo.gl/EJzKWw)
有一天,吉爾迦美什在河中洗浴,健美的體魄引起烏魯克守護者、豐收女神伊詩妲爾(Ishtar)的愛戀,以致她向吉爾迦美什求婚。但吉爾迦美什知道伊詩妲爾性格殘忍,反覆無常,以殘害男人為樂,於是斷然拒絕。伊詩妲爾惱羞成怒,為了報復,她將父神安努(Anu)的神牛趕到人間,使大地遭受了七年的饑荒和震亂。此時,吉爾迦美什又與恩啟都聯手殺死了神牛,紓解了民困。伊詩妲爾又一次受辱,怒火更甚。她請求眾神在吉爾迦美什或恩啟都間在選一人,讓他死去,做為殺死神牛的懲罰。眾神沒有選擇吉爾迦美什,於是恩啟都漸漸因精神衰弱而死。失去了唯一好友的吉爾迦美什感慨不已,於是四處尋找永生的方法。 — — 《從荷馬到但丁》 陳煒舜
伊詩妲爾惱羞成怒的原因,最大的原因是吉爾迦美什數落她如何對待她以前的男伴:
Your lovers have found you like a brazier which smoulders in the cold, a backdoor which keeps out neither squall of wind nor storm, a castle which crushes the garrison, pitch that blackens the bearer, a water-skin that chafes the carrier, a stone which falls from the parapet, a battering-ram turned back from the enemy, a sandal that trips the wearer. Which of your lovers did you ever love for ever? What shepherd of yours has pleased you for all time? Listen to me while I tell the tale of your lovers.
There was Tammuz, the lover of your youth, for him you decreed wailing, year after year. You loved the many coloured roller, but still you struck and broke his wing; now in the grove he sits and cries, “kappi, kappi, my wing, my wing.”
You have loved the lion tremendous in strength: seven pits you dug for him, and seven. You have loved the stallion magnificent in battle, and for him you decreed whip and spur and a thong, to gallop seven leagues by force and to muddy the water before he drinks; and for his mother Silili lamentations.
You have loved the shepherd of the flock; he made meal-cake for you day after day, he killed kids for your sake. You struck and turned him into a wolf, now his own herd-boys chase him away, his own hounds worry his flanks.
And did you not love Ishullanu, the gardener of your father’s palm grove? He brought you baskets filled with dates without end; every day he loaded your table. Then you turned your eyes on him and said, “Dearest Ishullanu, come here to me, let us enjoy your manhood, come forward and take me, I am yours.’ Ishullanu answered, “What are you asking from me? My mother has baked and I have eaten; why should I come to such as you for food that is tainted and rotten? For when was a screen of rushes sufficient protection from frosts?” But when you had beard his answer you struck him. He was changed to a blind mole deep in the earth, one whose desire is always beyond his reach. And if you and I should be lovers, should not I be served in the same fashion as all these others whom you loved once? — — 《The Epic of Gilgamesh (Assyrian International News Agency)》
吉爾迦美什為何拒絕伊詩妲爾的追求?眾神為何寧願將「無辜的」恩啟都殺死,而讓吉爾迦美什活下來?
吉爾迦美什討在蘇美語中含有火、父親、祖父的意思,在阿卡德語中則是人、偉大的、英雄之意。吉爾迦美什對女神伊詩妲爾不屑一顧,卻特別看重男人間的友情,這應算做是對古老母系制的一個回應。一如趙樂甡所論,吉爾迦美什和神的直接衝突,就是從伊詩妲爾的求婚開始的。好友恩啟都死後,吉爾迦美什踏上尋求永生之旅,這實質上是他對諸神安排生死的一種批判和抗爭。相比之下,他的好友恩啟都由神創造,神性似乎更強,與諸神的關係也更直接。然而,諸神卻只能以恩啟都之死做威脅,表達對吉爾迦美什的不滿;祂們能操控恩啟都的壽命,卻不能決定吉爾迦美什的命運。 — — 《從荷馬到但丁》 陳煒舜
吉爾迦美什暗自思忖,也許能找到一個戰勝死亡的方法,終於想到他的一個遠祖烏特那匹什提姆(Utnapishtim) — — 大洪水生還者和永生者。
烏特那匹什提姆就在對岸等著,好奇又困惑地看著陌生的來訪者……吉爾迦美什的希望越發高漲,卻幾乎馬上被撲滅了,因為烏特納皮什提明確地告訴他:他的長途追尋是徒勞的。因為諸神在創造你們的時候,用的是神的肉和人的肉,所以不管你是吉爾迦美什還是一個傻瓜,在某個時刻都是不可避免要死的。 「可是我看你跟我沒什麼不同啊!」吉爾迦美什大叫。「那就讓我告訴你一個從沒透露過的秘密吧。」於是,烏特那匹什提姆便把大洪水的故事告訴了吉爾迦美什。
在很久之前,那時的烏特那匹什提姆還住在古城蘇路帕克(Surupak),眾神在多次試圖減少人類數量都不成功後,決定一勞永逸地用洪水淹沒大地。當時由於明令禁止諸神向人類通風報信,智慧之神恩奇(即水神埃阿(Ea)),便用向蘆葦草屋說話的辦法間接地說出這一計劃…這時,烏特那匹什提姆正坐在牆的另一面,仔細收聽轉播的逃亡計劃:「拆掉房子,造一條大船,扔掉財產,在船上裝滿各種生物的種子。」 這一切都被隱秘而嚴格地執行了。
到了第七天,狂風暴雨從天而降,掀起滔天洪水,天昏地暗間,烏特那匹什提姆在船上看到「所有的人類全都變回泥土,整個洪氾區平得如同房頂一樣。」船在茫茫水面漂泊,最後在一處山頂擱淺。
洪水的創造者風神恩利爾(Enlil)憤怒地叫道:「絕不允許任何人逃過這場浩劫!」但是恩奇使他冷靜下來:「製造噪音的人類的確應該受到懲罰,可是要把地上的一切消滅乾淨,那太過分了。誰來供奉神靈,誰來獻祭貢品呢?」眾神看出多虧了烏特那匹什提姆人類才沒有滅絕,勇敢的行為應該受到獎賞。恩利爾便把烏特納皮什提夫婦帶到眾神面前,並祝福他們獲得永生。
這個故事並不能給吉爾迦美什一絲一毫希望,因為烏特納皮什提指出:「誰能替你去說服眾神呢?」不僅如此,烏特納皮什提還打算給吉爾迦美什一個教訓,如果這位英雄想要戰勝死亡,那就先試試戰勝睡眠吧……看看吉爾迦美什能否六天七夜不睡覺。 吉爾迦美什堅持了三天,但最終睡眠戰勝了他……他悶悶不樂地再次登上小船,渡過致命的海洋。當他快要消失在海平線時,烏特那匹什提姆的妻子責備丈夫太吝嗇……烏特那匹什提姆心軟了,就設法告訴吉爾迦美什,在地下深處的淡水之淵阿普蘇,長有一種根部像駱駝刺的草,如果能得到這種植物,他就可以返老還童。
吉爾迦美什立刻打開進入阿普蘇的大門,在身上綁塊大石頭然後跳進門去。他終於找到那棵草,興高采烈地回到地面。然而功虧一簣。吉爾迦美什在回程中又熱又累,決定在水池邊洗澡休息一下。當他正在池中放鬆時,一條蛇嗅到仙草的香味,悄悄地前來把它偷走吃掉,同時褪下一層皮。吉爾迦美什看到眼前那毫無用處的蛇蛻,知道自己失去了仙草,不由得嚎啕大哭起……吉爾迦美什不管內心多麼不情願,還是設法控制了自從恩啟杜死後一直纏繞著他不放的恐懼,接受了凡人注定一死的命運……據說吉爾迦美什的晚年就用來美化這座城市。雖然他沒能實現生命的永恆,他決心要永遠活在人們的記憶中。 — — 《吉爾伽美甚尋求長生不老的傳說(騎白鹿網) 》
在寫著《吉爾迦美什》石版之上,有道:
「烏特那匹什提姆喲,這草是棵〈非凡的〉草,人們靠它可以長生不老。我要把它帶回烏魯克城,讓〔 〕能吃到這草,它的名叫做西普‧伊沙希爾‧阿米爾,我也吃它,好重返少年,青春永葆。」
第280行重要的缺字,雖然不知道他要給誰吃這棵「長生不老」的仙草以得永生,但從第282行看,可以斷定不是他一個人吃。因此,更加說明他不畏艱險地探求永生,是對神的意志和安排的一種挑戰和違抗的表現,是他一心要認識自然法則的探索真理精神的一種體現,並不是單純地為了個人的生死。這就使英雄吉爾迦美什的形象更加高大,更加受人景仰。他的形象已從造福於烏魯克城保護人的形象,發展成為一個探索真理的英雄主義精神的化身。這應該是這部英雄史歌頌的核心部分。 — — 《吉爾迦美什》趙樂甡
《吉爾迦美什》的藝術價值方面,
它繼承了蘇美爾文學的優秀傳統,在很大程度上保留了民間口頭創作的特點。史詩的故事情節發展比較自由靈活,在長期流傳過程中納入了一些遠古神話傳說。具有濃鬱的浪漫主義色彩,它既寫人,又寫神,善於把神話世界與現實世界緊密結合,把人賦予神的特性,把神賦予人的感情。
在描寫上,如芬巴巴的神祕的杉樹林,吉爾伽美什長途跋涉中的不平凡見聞和經歷,戰勝威力強大的「天牛」的場面等等,都給人新奇之感。同時在吉爾伽美什、恩奇都以及眾天神的形象描寫和刻畫上,既帶有很大的傳奇性,又充滿了人間社會生活的氣息,形成了的現實主義因素和浪漫主義因素交織的趨向。
史詩中還采取了聯想、反複、排比、象征和誇張等藝術手法,比較生動形象地歌頌了英雄人物,表現了人物的思想行爲和精神面貌。如多次通過夢境表現人物的内心活動,象征並預示即將發生的事件,通過哭泣的場面來渲染感傷的氣氛等等,增強藝術感人的力量。 — — 《吉爾迦美什》中文百科在線
當然,第四部分水神埃阿阻止眾神之王恩尼爾用洪水毁滅人類,烏特那匹什提姆建立方舟動物和人的故事,應是《舊約聖經》挪亞方舟的原型。
而現實意義上,
史詩熱情地頌颺了古代英雄、英雄行爲以及英雄間的友誼,並提出了爲民建立功勳的重要思想。同時,也表現了古代巴比倫人認識自然法則、探索人生奧祕的樸素願望,歌頌了他們敢於違抗神意的積極進取精神。是神主宰人的命運,還是人自己掌握自己的命運,自古以來就存在着唯物論同唯心論的鬥爭。史詩在某些方面反映了人的主觀能動作用,讚頌了吉爾伽美什不畏艱難險阻的英雄行爲,這在宗教迷信思想占統治地位的遠古時代確是難能可貴的。
史詩還在一定程度上反映了古代兩河流域居民的社會生活和正在形成的階級關係,對我們了解、認識古代巴比倫社會的歷史和文學的發展有重要價值。這部史詩大體上概括了從原始公社制社會向奴隸制社會過渡時期的社會生活,反映了軍事民主制的某些社會面貌。當時奴隸制的生產關係正在萌芽,有些氏族部落的酋長已逐漸成爲軍事民主制的領袖,成爲早期的國王。他們自恃勇武過人,在城邦内專横殘暴,爲所欲爲。史詩中關於吉爾伽美什在烏盧克城的殘酷統治以及關於他的某種特權的描寫就是這種情況的真實寫照。史詩不僅展示了當時正在形成中的階級關係,即人和人之間的矛盾,也展示了人和神、神和神之間的矛盾,而這些矛盾又不同程度地反映了人同自然、人同社會的鬥爭,帶有複雜的性質,需進行具體分析。 — — 《吉爾迦美什》中文百科在線
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